UNITED STATES DOLLAR  
    2016   2015   2014  
8. ROYALTIES            
  South Africa (1.8)   (1.2)   (1.3)  
  Foreign (78.6)   (74.8)   (84.8)  
  Total royalties (80.4)   (76.0)   (86.1)  
  Royalty rates            
  South Africa (effective rate)1 0.5%   0.5%   0.5%  
  Australia2 2.5%   2.5%   2.5%  
  Ghana3 5.0%   5.0%   5.0%  
  Peru4 6.4%   4.0%   3.3%  
 
1 Included under “Other costs, net” in the consolidated income statement.
2 The Mineral and Petroleum Resource Royalty Act 2008 (“Royalty Act”) was promulgated on 24 November 2008 and became effective from 1 March 2010. The Royalty Act imposes a royalty on refined (mineral resources that have undergone a comprehensive level of beneficiation such as smelting and refining as defined in Schedule 1 of the Act) and unrefined (mineral resources that have undergone limited beneficiation as defined in Schedule 2 of the Act) minerals payable to the state. The royalty in respect of refined minerals (which include gold refined to 99.5% and above and platinum) is calculated by dividing earnings before interest and taxes (“EBIT”) by the product of 12.5 times gross revenue calculated as a percentage, plus an additional 0.5%. EBIT refers to taxable mining income (with certain exceptions such as no deduction for interest payable and foreign exchange losses) before assessed losses but after capital expenditure. A maximum royalty of 5% has been introduced on refined minerals. The effective rate of royalty tax payable for the year ended 31 December 2016 was 0.5% of mining revenue (2015: 0.5% and 2014: 0.5%) equalling the minimum charge per the formula.
3 The Australian and Ghanaian operations are subject to a 2.5% (2015: 2.5% and 2014: 2.5%) and 5.0% (2015: 5.0% and 2014: 5.0%) gold royalty, respectively, on revenue as the mineral rights are owned by the state.
4 The Peruvian operations are subject to a mining royalty calculated on a sliding scale with rates ranging from 1% to 12% of the value of operating profit.